Motivation in the Classroom
By Ireta Ekstrom, PhD

Our perfect student: chooses to come to every class (with the material read); participates enthusiastically in class discussions; asks pertinent, probing questions; persists even when having difficulty; does well on our tests; and even laughs at our jokes. Oh, and never asks, "Is this going to be on the test?" There is no doubt that this student will have academic success.

While we know that perfect student exists, the majority of our students don't come to us with this level of self motivation.

How do we do encourage our students and increase motivation? One way is by learning about motivation theories and how certain things that you do in organizing and preparing for classes can boost the motivation and interest of your students. I have drawn this information from McKeachie's book Teaching Tips, Strategies, Research and Theory for College and University Teachers (2002).
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Motivation Theories

Motivation is composed of three indicators: choice, effort and perseverance. A highly motivated learner will choose tasks that enhance learning, will work hard at those tasks and will persist to attain those goals. It can be an individual personal attribute for achievement that spills into every aspect of life or can be centered on one topic or class to the exclusion of all others. We do know that there are specific factors that can be manipulated during course design to enhance motivation. (note: these are summaries of McKeachie's listing).

Autonomy and Self-Determination
Many psychologists have found that we have a fundamental need for autonomy and self-determination. Most of us want to be in charge of our own behavior and we like having a sense of control over our environment. Within a classroom, this need requires nurturing and support

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Grades, recognition or parental approval can inspire an extrinsically motivated student. This student is preoccupied with grades and is the one asking "Is this going to be on the test?"

An intrinsically motivated student learns for the pleasure of learning, has an educational plan, usually can see the big picture more easily and has various cognitive and organizational strategies already in place to enhance learning.
What is interesting is that this is not an either/or situation. A single student can be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated in the same class. For example, if a course is required the student may be interested in the topic but still concerned about grades because of graduate school. On the other hand, a required course can stimulate curiosity about a topic and lead to an intrinsic motivation to learn more.

Expectancy X Value Theory
This equates to our expectation level of success in the activity times the value we place on the activity. A high level of expectancy times a high value equals high motivation. If either expectancy OR value is low, then motivation plummets.

Mastery Versus Performance Goals
Students tend to be either mastery or performance based. Mastery students want to understand the material while performance students focus on grades. You may be able to sway students toward mastery goals by how you measure success in the classroom.

Attribution Theory
When students begin explaining unexpected outcomes (such as a lower/higher-than-expected grade on a test or assignment) they make attributions about probable causes. Typically an attribution will focus on study time, lack of aptitude for a subject or good/bad luck.

Social Goals and Social Motivation
Another motivation that drives students is social goals. Students want to be socially responsible and to form social relationships with peers.

Theories into Practice

Here are some tips for putting the theories into practice.

1. Build bridges and networks for the students between today's information and what is known and not known about the subject. This raises the value of this course.
2. When planning assignments, consider giving students a choice of topics. This allows them to select an area of interest. By offering choices (however small) within the classroom setting, students' sense of control is enhanced. This supports their autonomy and, in turn, enhances motivation. Adding accountability to this equation can support student growth and maturation.
3. Promote mastery by allowing students to rewrite or improve assignments. One way to do this while not increasing your grading load is to have students do peer reviews. If you are going to use groups, consider using BlackBoard to create a group and give them space for sharing their papers within their group's space.
4. If you teach multiple sections of the same course, consider doing a frequency distribution of test questions by class. It is entirely possible to miss a topic in one class or to lose track of just what was covered. If large numbers of students miss a question, consider dropping that question from the test and re-teach the material. This leads to a "mastery" class context rather than "performance" context.
5. Give frequent tests so students learn your style and one mistake will not cost them the entire course grade. Enhance student control by providing a number of essay questions and allow them to choose which 3 of 4 to answer, for example.
6. Use a criterion-referenced grading approach. Using rubrics or other types of grading system make the requirements clear from the beginning. Students know what they must do to succeed and each of them has the same opportunity for success. This increases their sense of control, encourages cooperation rather than competition and motivates both extrinsic and intrinsic students.
7. Feedback can be growth-enhancing or growth-stifling. Try to provide constructive feedback that can help a student learn.
8. Let your enthusiasm for your subject show. Describe your intrinsic motivation – how did you get interested in the topic? You are a role model. As an instructor, you can also foster intrinsic motivation by enabling small successes at the beginning of the course. This raises the "expectancy of accomplishment" and then by elaborating on the "value" of this course as part of the larger topic, the value part of the equation can also be enhanced.
9. Create a means to have students meet some of their social goals while also reaching academic goals. For example, have students discuss a question during class. This enhances learning by having them elaborate on the topic which increases retention and provides an opportunity for clarification..

Bibliography
McKeachie, W. (2002). McKeachie's Teaching Tips. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.